Land and Resources

Angola is the seventh largest country in Africa, covering an area greater than France and Spain combined.

Physiographic Regions

Angola can be divided into three major regions. They are, from west to east, the coastal plain, a transition zone, and a vast inland plateau. The low-lying coastal plain varies from about 50 to 150 km (about 30 to 90 mi) in width. The transition zone, which consists of a series of terraces or escarpments, is about 150 km (about 90 mi) wide in the north, but diminishes to about 30 km (about 20 mi) in the center and south. To the east of this zone is the vast Angolan plateau, which covers approximately two-thirds of the country and has an average elevation of 1000 to 1520 m (3300 to 5000 ft). Higher elevations are reached in the mountains of the central section, which culminate in Mount Moco (2620 m/8596 ft), the country's highest point.

Rivers and Lakes

Most of Angola's rivers rise in the central mountains. Of the many rivers that drain to the Atlantic Ocean, the Cuanza and Cunene are the most important. Other major streams include the Cuango (Kwango) River, which drains north to the Congo River system, and the Cuando (Kwando) and Cubango rivers, both of which drain generally southeast to the Okavango Swamp. Angola has no sizable lakes.

Climate

Angola has a tropical climate, with a dry season that lasts from September to April. The cool Benguela Current offshore moderates the temperatures of the coastal region and reduces the precipitation, especially in the south. Annual rainfall at Luanda is about 130 mm (about 13 in) and only 50 mm (about 2 in) at Namibe, which borders the Namib Desert. In the cooler central plateau, rainfall decreases from 1500 mm (about 60 in) in the north to 750 mm (about 30 in) in the south.

Mineral Resources

Angola is rich in mineral resources, and further geological exploration is likely to add to the list of known mineral reserves. Among the most notable resources are petroleum, diamonds, iron ore, manganese, copper, uranium, phosphates, and salt.

Vegetation and Animal Life

Vegetation varies with the climate. Thick tropical rain forests are found in the north and in the Cabinda exclave. To the south the rain forests give way to savanna, lands of mixed trees and grasses, which in turn grade into grasslands on the south and east. Palm trees are found on much of the coast, and sparse desert vegetation grows south of Namibe. Wildlife is as diverse as the vegetation and includes many of the larger African mammals, such as elephants, rhinoceroses, giraffes, hippopotamuses, zebras, antelope, lions, and gorillas. Also found are crocodiles and a diversity of birdlife and insects.

Population

The population of Angola is made up of more than 90 ethnic groups. Despite this diversity, five groups represent more than 90 percent of the population: Orimbunda (37 percent); Mbanda (25 percent); Bakongo, or Kongo (15 percent); Lunda-Chokwe (8 percent); and Nganguela (6 percent). Before independence from Portugal was achieved in 1975, Angola had a community of approximately 400,000 Portuguese; more than 90 percent of these have since departed for Portugal.

Population Characteristics

The 1995 estimated population of Angola, including Cabinda, is 11,072,000. The overall population density is only about 9 persons per sq km (about 23 per sq mi). Distribution, however, is uneven, with about 70 percent of the population concentrated in the north and along the coast. The natural rate of population increase was less than 3 percent annually in the early 1990s. The population is overwhelmingly rural; only about one-third of the people live in urban areas.

Principal Cities

Luanda, the capital, has a population (1988 estimate) of 1.2 million. Other major cities are Huambo (1983 estimate, 203,000), Benguela (155,000), the port of Lobito (150,000), and Lubango (105,000).

Language and Religion

Portuguese is the official language. More than 90 percent of the population speaks Bantu languages, the most important of which are Kimbundu, Umbundu, and Kikongo (see African Languages: The Niger-Kordofanian Family). Before independence an estimated 2.2 million Roman Catholics, including most of the 400,000 Portuguese, lived in Angola, as well as a smaller number of Protestants. In the early 1990s most of the population professed Christian beliefs; many also practiced traditional religions.

Education

In principle, education is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 7 and 15. However, under colonial rule education was sporadic and not well-supported, and the adult illiteracy rate was more than 85 percent at independence. With national independence came educational reforms, including instruction in indigenous languages and a national literacy campaign. Under these changes, primary school enrollment jumped from about 300,000 in 1973 to 1.3 million in the early 1990s. Higher education was also emphasized; enrollment reached 6500, with most of those students attending Angola's only university, Agostinho Neto University (1976) in Luanda. By 1990 the illiteracy rate had been reduced to about 58 percent (44 percent for males, 72 percent for females). A lack of teachers and effects of the long-running civil conflict have hindered further educational gains.

Economy

Angola's economy has suffered severe setbacks since independence. The shortage of skilled workers after the departure of the Portuguese and the devastation from the long-running civil war have hampered economic growth. The upsurge in fighting that occurred in the early 1990s severely disrupted agricultural production, leading to famine conditions in many parts of Angola and a dependence on food relief from international organizations.

National Output and Labor

Angola's economy grew in the late 1980s, averaging 11.3 percent growth in gross domestic product (GDP) between 1985 and 1988. In 1989, however, growth was severely curtailed to just 0.3 percent; that year Angola had a GDP of $7.7 billion, or about $790 per person. The total labor force was estimated at 3.8 million in 1992, of which about 70 percent were engaged in agriculture.

Agriculture

Arable land constitutes only about 2.8 percent of Angola's total area. Less than one-sixth of this land is under permanent cultivation. The leading export crop, coffee, is grown in the northern part of the country; annual output has dropped from about 15,000 metric tons in the late 1980s to 5000 tons in 1992. The leading subsistence crop is cassava, or manioc (2 million metric tons). Other major crops include sugarcane (330,000 metric tons), bananas (280,000), and corn (369,000). Also important are vegetables, cotton, palm products, and sisal. Livestock raising, mostly in the south, remains a subsistence activity and suffers from the presence of the tsetse fly.

Forestry and Fishing

The rich rain forests of Cabinda and the northwest furnished about 6.6 million cu m (about 233 million cu ft) a year of roundwood for fuel and industrial purposes in the early 1990s. Because of the cool Benguela Current, the waters off the coast of Angola are particularly rich in marine life. Fishing has thus been a traditionally important activity; in 1991 the total yearly catch was about 75,000 metric tons, primarily mackerel and sardines. Namibe and Lobito are the principal fishing ports.

Mining

Petroleum accounts for some 90 percent of national exports by value. Most production is from the offshore fields of Cabinda, which were first exploited in the 1960s. The total annual output of crude petroleum in 1990 was 23.5 million metric tons. Diamonds remain the second most important mineral. Annual output in 1990 was 1.3 million carats; nearly all were of gem quality. Iron ore, formerly the third most important mineral, has not been produced commercially since 1975 because the mines were destroyed during the civil war. Production of salt and natural gas has continued, despite the disruption of the war.

Manufacturing

The development of the industrial sector has been limited. The principal manufactured products are beverages and processed foods, such as refined sugar, fish meal, flour, and beer. Other products include textiles, cement, glass, and chemicals. Petroleum refineries are located in Cabinda and at Luanda.

Energy

Angola has great hydroelectric potential in the numerous streams that descend from the central plateau. Hydroelectric plants have been constructed on the Cuanza, Cunene, Dande, and Catumbela rivers. The total production of electric energy in the early 1990s was 800 million kilowatt-hours, much of which was generated from hydroelectric plants. At present Angola's power production potential exceeds its needs.

Currency and Banking

The basic unit of currency is the kwanza, which replaced the Angolan escudo in 1977. The kwanza was devalued by more than 50 percent in late 1990, and was replaced by the new kwanza. This currency was continually devalued in the early 1990s as the Angolan economy suffered from civil unrest, going from 60 new kwanza to the United States dollar in 1990 to thousands of new kwanza to the dollar less than four years later (35,000 new kwanza equal U.S.$1; 1994). The National Bank of Angola is the central bank and bank of issue and functions as the state treasury. All commercial and foreign banks were nationalized in 1975.

Foreign Trade

In 1991 imports totaled $1.6 billion and annual exports $3.4 billion. The chief imports were textiles, foodstuffs, heavy machinery, and iron and steel. Petroleum accounted for some 90 percent of the exports, which have traditionally included coffee, diamonds, sisal, fish, and palm oil. Since Angola's independence, Portugal has been replaced by the United States as the country's leading destination for exports. Other export destinations are Germany, Brazil, the Netherlands, Great Britain, and Belgium and Luxembourg. Portugal remains the leading source for imports, followed by the United States, Brazil, and the Netherlands.

Transportation

Angola's road system consists of about 72,600 km (about 45,100 mi) of roads, of which 11 percent are paved. The road network is inadequate for so large an area and is supplemented by a relatively well-developed internal air service, provided by the country's national airline. Total operated railroad track is about 2950 km (about 1835 mi). The principal line, the Benguela Railroad, links mineral-rich Zambia and the Shaba region of Zaire with the Atlantic port of Lobito. Because of guerrilla activity, it was closed to international traffic from 1975 to 1980 and has since operated sporadically. The country's chief ports are the cities of Lobito, Luanda, and Namibe.

Government

Under a constitution promulgated in 1975 and subsequently amended, Angola was until the early 1990s a single-party republic governed by the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola-Labor party (Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola-Partido de Trabalho), generally referred to as MPLA. Legislative powers were nominally exercised by the indirectly elected National People's Assembly, but the MPLA was the government's major policymaking body, and its chairman served as president of the republic. Under a 1991 peace accord between the MPLA and the guerrilla organization opposing the government, the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola, or UNITA), Angola held its first multiparty elections for president and for a new 220-seat parliament in September 1992. However, UNITA rejected the results of the election, and a scheduled runoff was delayed indefinitely.

Local Government

Angola is divided into 18 provinces, each governed by a commissioner appointed by the president. These provinces are further divided into councils and communes. Each level of local government has a direct representative of the MPLA. However, large areas of the country are controlled by UNITA, and a treaty signed in November 1994 gave the opposition party official control of selected parts of Angola.

Political Parties

The country's dominant political party originated in 1956 as the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA). In 1977 it was reorganized as a Marxist-Leninist party and renamed the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola-Labor party; in April 1991 it formally renounced its Marxist orientation. Its rival, founded in 1966, is UNITA, which waged ongoing guerrilla warfare against the MPLA beginning in 1975, when Angola became independent. Numerous smaller parties also exist, including the Angolan Democratic Forum, the Democratic Renewal party, the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola, or FNLA), and the Angola Youth, Worker, Peasant Alliance party.

History

Practically all that is known of the early history of Angola is that the Stone Age hunters and gatherers of the region were displaced by metalworking Bantu as early as the 7th century AD. The country was on the migration routes of peoples from the north and east, which resulted in considerable mixture of populations. Thus, the culture of the Lunda, on the Kasai River in the east, affected the Chokwe to the extent that they are now known as the Lunda-Chokwe; similarly, the Bakongo, at the time of their migration into northern Angola, put their stamp on the preexisting local chiefdoms.

Advent of Europeans

When the Portuguese arrived in 1483, seeking the legendary kingdom of Prester John, as well as precious metals, they found the realm of the Bakongo well established. The ruler of the state welcomed the newcomers, and in 1491 Portuguese traders and missionaries bearing gifts were sent to the court of Manikongo ("king") Nzinga Nkuwu, who converted to Christianity. Also converting was the succeeding manikongo, Afonso I, who also accepted Portuguese guidance in the administration of his realm. The Portuguese, however, were more interested in profit from a booming trade in slaves than in either missionary work or spreading European civilization. The slave traffic, aided by local chiefs, gradually undermined the authority of the manikongo, and 25 years after Afonso's death the state succumbed to the onslaught of the Jaga, a fierce group of nomads from the east.

Native Resistance

The Portuguese, meanwhile, had extended their reach southward to the area around and south of present Luanda, over which they soon claimed colonial authority; it was the title of the local ruler, ngola, that became the name of the country. Portugal appointed royal governors who tried to impose their will on the population, but foreign rule was stubbornly resisted. Prolonged warfare ensued, while slave raids helped to keep the country in continuous turmoil. In addition, the Jaga overran the area after they had devastated the Bakongo, and in the middle of the 17th century, Luanda, founded by the Portuguese in 1575, was temporarily taken by the Dutch. Practically no European settlement was attempted during this time, owing to the much greater profits to be made in the slave trade; by 1845 there were still only 1800 Europeans in all of Angola. The slave trade went on almost uninterrupted throughout the 19th century. By the end of that time an estimated 3 million people had been taken and sold off across the Atlantic to North and South America.

Portugal did not gain full control over the country's interior until the early 20th century. After that it was governed under the so-called regime do indigenato, an invidious system of economic exploitation, educational neglect, and political repression that remained in force until 1961. In 1951 Angola's official status was changed from colony to overseas province; soon after, a policy of accelerated European settlement was adopted—the futile attempt of the colonial power to stave off the inevitable. During the 1950s a nationalist movement grew rapidly, and in 1961 a guerrilla war against the Portuguese was initiated.

War and Independence

The nationalists, however, were split into three rival groups: the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola, or FNLA), the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola, or MPLA), and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola, or UNITA). All three had armed forces in the field, but none made much headway until the revolution in Portugal in April 1974 (see Portugal: History). After that, the whole Portuguese colonial empire began to fall apart. The new Lisbon regime agreed to a transfer of power, and on November 11, 1975, Angola became independent. Two governments claimed to represent the new nation, one formed by the MPLA in Luanda, the other by UNITA and FNLA in Huambo. The ensuing civil war assumed international overtones: the MPLA was armed by the USSR and aided by Cuban troops, while some Western powers and South Africa allied themselves with the FNLA/UNITA coalition and its leader, Jonas Savimbi. By early 1976 the MPLA had gained the upper hand, and its government, with MPLA leader Agostinho Neto as president, was gradually recognized throughout the world.

Neto died in 1979, and leadership of the nation was assumed by José Eduardo dos Santos. Although the FNLA surrendered to the government in 1984, UNITA continued to wage guerilla warfare against the MPLA, supported militarily by South Africa and the United States. South Africa was also battling the Angolan government over control of Namibia. In August 1988 a peace agreement was reached between Angola, South Africa, and Cuba that granted independence to Namibia and ended Cuban and South African military involvement in the Angolan civil war. The U.S. government continued to send aid to UNITA, but also pushed forward diplomatic efforts to end the conflict. In March 1991 the two sides signed a peace accord providing for a cease-fire and the legalization of all political parties by May. President dos Santos called for multiparty elections to be held in September 1992, and a United Nations (UN) peacekeeping force maintained order.